'NGOs legitimacy and representation at the global level' Literature review

'NGOs legitimacy and representation at the global level' - Literature review Example ons and an annual addition of 1200 new ones (Yearbook of international organizations, 2013).This essay seeks to examine the concepts of legitimacy and representation of these NGOs at the global level. In addition, the essay intends to find out the ways in which accountability and representation can be enhanced. As a point of departure, a pressing question on the legitimacy and present political debate on reclaiming the democratic projects in the context of globalization has arose and it needs to be answered. Numerous institutions and scholars have always argued out the extent to which these NGOs are legitimate, responsible and answerable (MACDONALD, 2008). These aspects directly affect the subjects. For instance, the reason for the recent mounting of pressure of high profile campaigns for democratization of powerful international organizations such as the IMF and world Bank includes the belief that, these organizations are neither not representatives of the subjects, nor do they exhibit the aspects of accountable bodies. Montesquieu, a balanced democrat argues that any leadership that is a representative of subjects must get consent of the governed. This follows that, a legitimate NGO should be attributed to the consent of the governed either through elections or by acclamation. This follows that, democracy is exhibited in these institutions if Montesquieu principle is applied (LOY, 1968). On the other hand, Locke confirms that the aspect of legitimacy must be derived from the subjects and once a legitimate body has been consented, then subjects have a preserve of their rights through these bodies. Locke believes that, the interests of the subjects must come first before personal interests (LOCKE, 1990). The question that arises is that who bestows responsibilities to NGOs and how representation of citizens is gained? This follows that, the aspect of representation is challengeable. Despite MACDONALD’s assertion that, alternative non-electoral mechanism of

Middle East Essay Example for Free

Middle East Essay The central difference between Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims is the manner in which they have chosen to recognize leadership in Islam following the death of the prophet Muhammad. Etymologically, Sunni people are those who â€Å"follow the traditions of the Prophet,† whilst the Shia are those who follow the â€Å"Household of the Prophet,† and these are apt descriptors of the manner in which they differ. Sunni Muslims chose to recognize the authority of Muhammad’s companions, who declared that the role of leadership was to be accorded to one deemed capable, establishing a Caliphate under Muhammad’s confidante, Abu Bakr. Shia Muslims on the other hand, chose not to recognize the authority of the Caliphate, and instead devoted themselves to a line of Imams they believe to be appointed through divine right. Shia Muslims are essentially the minority, with Sunni Muslim comprising 85% of the world’s Islamic population. Generally speaking, Amin maintains that despite these political differences, their core beliefs are fundamentally the same. The fundamental analogy he provides is the contrast between Protestantism and the Roman Catholic Orthodoxy. The Shia Imam is essentially a nigh-infallible figure accorded Pope-like reverence, while the Sunni choose a more individualistic and secular form of respect, eschewing formal clergy in favor of scholarship and independence much like Protestantism. Other than that, they agree on many critical aspects of Islam: the Five Pillars, and neither group denies the other’s right to identifying as Muslim. As Athar observes, many Muslims do not actually actively distinguish themselves nominally. However, Athar also argues that the political ramifications of their differences have led to an unfair stigmatization of the Shia Muslims within Western media, if it chooses at all to inform non-Muslims of these differences. One notable misconception is the notion that Shia do not pay ‘zakat’ or poor-due when in fact, they do. They simply choose not to make this contribution through the Sunni government, which they believe to be corrupt. Works Cited Amin, Hussein Abdulwaheed. â€Å"The Origins of the Sunni/Shia split in Islam. † Islam For Today. 17 August 2007. Retrieved August 29, 2008 from: http://www. islamfortoday. com/shia. htm Athar, Shahid. â€Å"Shia Sunni Unity: Shia Sunni Differences, Shia Sunni Conflict. † Islam Online. 5 June 2007. Retrieved August 29, 2008 from: http://www. ezsoftech. com/Akram/shiasunniunity. asp

Bimatoprost Monotherapy in CACG Patients with Extensive PAS

Bimatoprost Monotherapy in CACG Patients with Extensive PAS Intraocular Pressure-Lowering Efficacy of Bimatoprost in Chronic Angle-Closure Glaucoma Patients with Extensive Peripheral Anterior Synechiae: A Preliminary Study Introduction Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, affecting an estimated 64.3 million people aged 40–80 years, and this figure is expected to increase to 70 million in 2020.1 Open-angle glaucoma (OAG) is the more common form of glaucoma, but because angle-closure glaucoma (ACG) is more prevalent in Asia, the continent that accounts for 60% of the world population, ACG causes a disproportionate burden of morbidity.1,2 ACG is also more critical due to its greater likelihood to cause blindness than OAG.3 ACG is defined by a partially occludable angle and elevated intra-ocular pressure (IOP) of more than 21 mmHg, with no or mild symptoms until very late in the disease and vision loss becomes evident. Detection by gonioscopy reveals very narrow angle with appositional contact between the iris and trabecular meshwork.4,5 This area of contact increases gradually and asymptomatically, with peripheral anterior synechiae (PAS) forming and spreading circumferentially, usually involving at least 180 degree-angle, which then increases IOP.3,6,7 The exact mechanism of PAS formation is not clearly understood, but it is known that the formation of PAS starts as the peripheral part of the iris adheres to the Schwalbe’s line and extends towards the angle recess. PAS is considered to be present when the adhesion of the iris reaches the mid-trabecular meshwork and its extent exceeds one clock hour on indentation gonioscopy. (Yoo et al. 2007) The level of IOP is directly related to the extent of the angle closure.4,7 The goal of treatment therefore is directed towards reopening of the angle and preventing and/or stopping nerve damage, and reduction of IOP.3 High IOP is a clinically important risk factor associated with progressive optic-disc changes and visual field loss.10 Aside from obstruction of the trabecular meshwork, Bodh et al. reported that the elevation of IOP may be caused by prostaglandin E1 and prostaglandin E2-mediated increase in secretion or the breakdown of blood aqueous barrier and corticosteroid-induced elevation. (Bodh SA, Kumar V, Raina UK, Ghosh B, Thakar M. Inflammatory glaucoma. Oman Journal of Ophthalmology. 2011;4(1):3-9. doi:10.4103/0974-620X.77655.) The Early Manifest Glaucoma Progression Trial, which evaluated the impact of reducing IOP in patients with OAG with normal or elevated IOP, showed the benefit of treatment (using laser trabeculoplasty plus topical betaxolol hydrochloride) on delaying the glaucoma progression in terms of visual field loss and optic disc changes by an average of 18 months longer than patients who did not receive treatment. An average reduction of IOP by about 5.1 mmHg resulted in less frequent progression and occurred significantly later in treated patients. (Heijl A, et al. 2002) Laser iridotomy is the standard initial approach to ACG.9,10 Treatment of acute ACG (AACG) can be satisfactorily treated with laser iridotomy alone, which is associated with good prognosis.8 However, chronic cases, after iridotomy with significant amount of PAS and suboptimal IOP control, require the use ÃŽ ²-adrenoreceptor antagonists (ÃŽ ²-blockers), topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, or selective ÃŽ ±2-adrenoreceptor agonists.10 A review of randomised controlled trials showed evidence that prostaglandin analogs and ÃŽ ²-blockers are recommended as monotherapy for the treatment of CACG when iridotomy has failed.9 Prostaglandin analogs have proven efficiency in lowering IOP in OAG with less side effects than ÃŽ ²-blockers.11 In addition, several trials have shown prostanoids to be more effective in reducing IOP than ÃŽ ²-blockers, topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, or selective ÃŽ ±2-adrenoreceptor agonists also patients with OAG.12However, recent studies have demonstrated that prostaglandin analogs such as latanoprost, bimatoprost and travopost to be effective in lowering IOP in chronic ACG (CACG), even in the presence of 360-degree PAS.10A meta-analysis on the efficacy of anti-glaucoma drugs in patients with open-angle glaucoma, tension glaucoma or ocular hypertension showed bimatoprost to provide the greatest reduction in IOP.13 Bimatoprost monotherapy has been demonstrated to decrease IOP in CACG patients with at least 9 clock hours of PAS on gonioscopy. However, the IOP-lowering efficacy of bimatoprost in eyes with extensive PAS is not fully understood. It has been suggested that that bimatoprost increases the aqueous outflow through the uveoscleral or the trabecular pathways being blocked by PAS in CACG.14 This prospective, interventional case series was conducted to determine the efficacy of bimatoprost monotherapy in CACG patients with extensive PAS. References: 1. Tham YC, Li X, Wong TY, Quigley H a., Aung T, Cheng CY. Global Prevalence of Glaucoma and Projections of Glaucoma Burden through 2040. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Ophthalmology. 2014;121(11):2081-2090. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.05.013. 2. Quigley H a, Broman a T. The number of people with glaucoma worldwide in 2010 and 2020. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90:262-267. doi:10.1136/bjo.2005.081224. 3. Rafael CastanÃÅ'Æ’eda-DiÃÅ' ez, Mariana MayorquiÃÅ' n-Ruiz CE-L and OA-D. Current Diagnosis and Management of Angle-closure glaucoma. In: Dr. Pinakin Gunvant, ed. Glaucoma Current Clinical and Research Aspects. InTech; 2011. doi:10.5772/18123. 4. Yuji Kondo TY. Epidemiology of angle closure glaucoma. In: Chul Hong, Yamamoto T, eds. Angle Closure Glaucoma. Kugler Publications; 2007:278. https://books.google.com/books?id=PV6ehhSdis0Cpgis=1. Accessed February 22, 2015. 5. Harmohina Bagga G Chandra Sekhar. Chapter 9. Primary Angle-Closure Glaucoma. In: Saxena S, ed. Clinical Ophthalmology: Medical and Surgical Approach. Jaypee Brothers Publishers; 2011:877. https://books.google.com/books?id=5jynsUAXg-ECpgis=1. Accessed February 22, 2015. 6. Mittal S. Classification of glaucomas. In: Garg A, ed. Mastering the Tech. of Glaucoma Diag. Management. Jaypee Brothers Publishers; 2006:556. https://books.google.com/books?id=CA6kwpx9A9YCpgis=1. 7. Lee JY, Kim YY, Jung HR. Distribution and characteristics of peripheral anterior synechiae in primary angle-closure glaucoma. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2006;20(2):104-108. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2908823tool=pmcentrezrendertype=abstract. Accessed February 22, 2015. 8. Salmon J. Chapter 13: Gonioscopy. Section 3: Diagnosis of Glaucoma. In: Sharaway T, ed. Glaucoma: Medical Diagnosis and Therapy. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2009:668. https://books.google.com/books?id=-1wtvjCY6dcCpgis=1. 9. Saw SM, Gazzard G, Friedman DS. Interventions for angle-closure glaucoma CRD summary Authors ’ objectives. Database Abstr Rev Eff Qual Rev. 2003:2-5. 10. See JLS, Aquino MCD, Aduan J, Chew PTK. Management of angle closure glaucoma. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2011;59 Suppl:S82-S87. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.73690. 11. Yu A W-LU. [Mechanisms , clinical profile and role of prostaglandin and prostamide analogues in antiglaucomatous therapy ] Article in German. Kin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2013;230(2):127-132. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1327946. 12. Ishida N, Odani-Kawabata N, Shimazaki A, Hara H. Prostanoids in the therapy of glaucoma. Cardiovasc Drug Rev. 2006;24(1):1-10. doi:10.1111/j.1527-3466.2006.00001.x. 13. Valk R Van Der, Webers CA, Schouten JS, Zeegers MP, Hendrikse F, Prins MH. Intraocular pressure-lowering effects of all commonly used glaucoma drugs: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Database Abstr Rev Eff Qual Rev. 2005. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2005.01.042. 14. Gupta V, Srinivasan G, Sharma A, Kapoor KS, Sihota R. Comparative evaluation of bimatoprost monotherapy in primary chronic angle closure and primary open angle glaucoma eyes: a three-year study. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther Off J Assoc Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2007;23(4):351-358. doi:10.1089/jop.2006.0107.

The Great Skater :: Personal Narrative Essay

The Great Skater Like any other sport, ice-skating is obliged to creative people who bring something new to it. These people are known to everyone as the inventors of particular jumps, splits, spins. They are given credit for their work and, sometimes, the skating moves they invented carry their names. For instance, the Lutz jump was invented by Alois Lutz before World War II; the Walley jump was attributed to Bruce Mapes who performed with the Ice Follies in the 1930s. With Mabel Fairbanks that was never the case. The spins she invented never have been officially admitted to be exclusively her creation. For me, it was a profound experience to be coached by her, as I was learning not only the art of skating, but also many things that one can learn from a wise person. I treasure her advice very much. Mabel Fairbanks was a brilliant and a hard working skater. The only problem she experienced over and over was the unwillingness of the skating world to admit that she was deeply talented. It was the second quarter of the 20th century, and she was not allowed to perform the major skating movements--the elements she found the most fun to perform. She was black, she was too good, and the other girls in the show wouldn't look as skillful having Mabel performing next to them. In fact, Sonja Heini once refused to allow Mabel to join Sonja's popular skating troupe because Mabel was too gifted. Mabel was restricted in her skating to the simple elements. But, Mabel wouldn't be Mabel if she didn't extricate herself from the restrictions. How? The solution was ingenious: "If they don't let me skate the conventional way, I'll invent something of my own. This way, nobody and nothing can prevent me from skating to my full abilities." Necessity turned out to be the mother of invention. In a short period of time, Mabel, the first black superstar skater in the history of the United States, came up with the new variations of basic spin. They were so gorgeous! She was the star of the shows at British West Indies with the famous Ice Follies, and in Mexico with the Ice Capades. The only sad thing is that the spins she invented have never been called anything more than just spin's variations. If it were for me, I'd call them Fairbanks spins.

A Good Manager Essay

Managers can use humor and give their employees small tokens of appreciation for work well done. Also, when leaders themselves are in good moods, group members are more positive, and as a result they cooperate more. 127 Finally, selecting positive team members can have a contagion effect because positive moods transmit from team member to team member CASES Emotions and positive moods appear to facilitate effective decision making and creativity. Recent research suggests mood is linked to motivation, especially through feedback. Leaders rely on emotions to increase their effectiveness. The display of emotions is important to social behavior like negotiation and customer service. The experience of emotions is closely linked to Job attitudes and behaviors that follow from attitudes, such as deviant workplace behavior. Our final managerial implication is a question: can managers control colleagues’ and employees’ emotions and moods? Certainly there are limits, practical and ethical. Emotions and moods are a natural part of an individual’s makeup. Where managers err is in ignoring co-workers’ and employees’ emotions and assessing others’ behavior as if it were completely rational. As one consultant aptly put it, muff can’t divorce emotions from the workplace because you can’t divorce emotions from people. † 129 Managers who understand the role of emotions and moods will significantly improve their ability to explain and predict their co-workers’ and employees’ behavior. 1 . The first reason can be the diversity of people because not everybody has the same action and reaction; there are different kind of people who have different emotion and feelings. It will become harder to manage employees when the organization becomes bigger. In addition to these, as mentioned in the case the way of acting people’s business culture and etiquette sometimes can create ineffective managing environment. Applying wrongful behaviors like shouting when somebody did wrong work is the indicator of the poor managing. I think the emotions or reactions of people are related with their psychology but not their education level. A Good Manager By Miramar

Contract Law - Doctrine of Consideration essays

Contract Law - Doctrine of Consideration essays The doctrine of consideration has been a source of much discussion over the years. In 1937, the doctrine of consideration was under review by the English Law Revision Committee. They suggested that the inconvenience and possible injustice resulting from the doctrine of consideration raise the question whether it presents countervailing disadvantages which justify its retention. Furthermore they acknowledged that the French Civil Code finds cause as the important component in a contract. In Germany, the law looks at the intention of the parties that make up the contract. Both societies do not recognise the doctrine of consideration, yet they are both highly developed legal systems, and they operate without the difficulties that our society experiences with the doctrine of consideration. They also acknowledged that, even though there was much support for the abolition of this doctrine, it was so deeply embedded in...law that any measure which proposed to do away with it altoge ther would almost certainly arouse suspicion and hostility. The English Law Revision Committee therefore suggested amending the doctrine to eliminate those aspects which may cause both hardship and unnecessary inconvenience. The committee believed that this was a crucial course of action for the doctrine of consideration to prevent hardship and unnecessary inconvenience. The recommendations made by the committee were not enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The courts have, by decisions made on particular cases, made an effort to apply the recommendations made by the committee to reduce the hardship and unnecessary inconvenience that the doctrine of consideration may cause. Cases such as Williams v Roffey Bros Maher are some cases that the courts have used a...

to kill a mocking bird2 essays

to kill a mocking bird2 essays Outcasts, they are part of every society, yet they cause no harm. Society outcasts dont choose their status, instead society it self chooses it for them. An outcast is usually the type of person who is different, and because of their oddity they are rejected. Society seems to tend and discard them on grounds that they arent what society defines as normal. People casted out are considered a threat to the rest of society, because they endanger the, normalcy, that society continuously struggles to obtain. Rejected from society, some of these outcasts will; isolate themselves, despise and torment others, or try to be accepted in to society by doing whatever necessary. They are often taunted, compared, put up with, restricted, and/or penalized by society for being who they are. All they need to survive is their families, shelter, friends, and sometimes the need for a feeling of acceptance. I feel, on the other hand, while people try so hard to perfect there society, they dont realize their own problems which leads to their downfall in the end. In the novel To Kill A Mockingbird there were several model people rejected from society in one way or another. Atticus Finch, one of the main characters in the story, was more of an accepted outcast because he was respected, but was still different from the rest of society. Through out the story Atticus was fairly respected and even in some cases a vital part of society because of his knowledge, and skills. He wasnt like the rest of society which left him out of the clique called society. He kept his thoughts and opinions to himself, did no gossiping of others, minded his own business, and treated everyone as an equal to him if not more. I think he was one of the wisest characters in the story as he always took everything into its proper perspective and stood up for what he believed in. He was m ...